Rhetorical Analysis Of Here s Why Suspensions Won Not...

Rhetorical Strategies in â€Å"Here s Why Suspensions Won t Deter PED Users Like Maria Sharapova† The use of PED (performance-enhancing drugs) is always a popular topic especially since the Olympic game passed by. Author Zach Petersel’s article: Here s Why Suspensions Won t Deter PED Users Like Maria Sharapova claims that punishment for taking PED is incremental, while the benefits are exponential. After carefully reading the article, I think the article would be great to be printed in the Shorthorn of the University of Arlington. First of all, Zach made a clear and strong claim. He also builds his credibility by using one of the most famous cases that happened on the famous athletics to make the article, and he addresses an issue that lots of the college student will be interest in. In the article, the author, Zach claims that suspensions will not deter PED users like Maria Sharapova. Zach reasons that although the highest-paid female athlete Sharapova received a suspension of about a year because of her use of PED, she still owns some sponsorships and aids, and her net worth is about $125 million a year. Sharapova’ reputation might be untarnished because of her play to the public. Zach states that the behaviors like Sharapova’s will cause a negative effect to the society and we need to find a way to solve this problem. The article would be great to many of the readers and highly recommend it to be published in the Shorthorn because first of all, this article is coherent

Surprising Details Regarding Essay Topics for Scholarships Samples Exposed

Surprising Details Regarding Essay Topics for Scholarships Samples Exposed New Step by Step Roadmap for Essay Topics for Scholarships Samples The committee will present their approval on Tuesday. For example, your professor will observe you've carried out good research. Students should reveal their qualities and other vital things in the scholarship. Learn more on the subject of the Build U. Scholarship. Essay Topics for Scholarships Samples Help! When these essays can look like a little step toward your future, they're a step nonetheless. You may acquire an idea for a starting point in your essay. Don't forget, an admission essay sample may be a good way to find out more about the writing procedure and understand the task better. Don't rush writing and revising. What You Must Know About Essay Topics for Scholarships Samples Besides the phonetic rhythm, it's important to produce your essay dynamic by its sense. Chemistry is a subject which, basically, supplies you with u seful information regarding the different substances or forms of materials which make up the physical world around us and the way in which they behave or react with one another. Both examples manage the very same theme (sick parent) but utilize various approaches. There are a couple characteristics that may give rise to a high quality essay that might not be included in several other kinds of documents. The general format of your essay, for example, font size and margins, will solely are based on the instructions provided to you. The 16 themes below are created that you use as a reference until you are able to spot them all on your own. Be sure to follow along with the correct format, consisting of the general sections of an essay. Humor and irony will ensure it is simpler for your reader to process the info, giving a chance to have a brief break for the brain and relax somewhat. The grammar of an essay may also be checked very easily and there is absolutely no headache at the conclusion of the day. Tattoo is a type of art made by the qualified artists. Tattoos mean various things to various folks. Facts, Fiction and Essay Topics for Scholarships Samples Essays are often needed for scholarship applications. The Mobility Disability Scholarship is available to students that have a mobility disability, and people who have a regard for disability awareness in the united states. Students lead busy lives and frequently forget about a coming deadline. The career theme is really self-explanatory. To compose a History essay out of imagination is impossible. An excellent essay is one which leaves an enduring impression. You need to be really sure of what you are likely to achieve from your extended essay. Crafting a great essay, made easy Getting an ideal essay with an essay writing tool isn't a challenging job. Don't forget to begin your essay strongit should be able to spark the interests of your readers. Even in the event that you take a notion from this kind of essay, make certain you produce that idea in your words and cite some appropriate source. At times, the quotes of famous people may enhance your essay. Economic essays are therefore not that hard to write, all you need to do is to pick a correct topic for essays on economics. No need to set your marks and grades in danger when you are in possession of an expert essay writing software on hand. While you cannot predict every essay question, knowing some of the most typical ones may give you an advantage on applications. Prior to beginning, bear in mind an excellent understanding of appropriate spelling, punctuation and grammar may be real boost to both your business writing and the true success of your company. Does trade always provides any comparative benefits. Essay Topics for Scholarships Samples - Overview The standar d and effectiveness of the last essay make it quite readable. You are able to obtain nearly every Sample essay online for unique subjects. Let EssayEdge help you compose an application essay which gets noticed. Viewing a Sample essay and considering the matter of plagiarism is quite important.

Impacts of Corruption on Decision Making - myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theImpacts of Corruption on Decision Making for World Bank. Answer: Introduction Corruption is definable as the process through which an individual misuses the public power, public resources, or even private resources to make a decayed decision that deviates from the set criterion as a result of receiving a reward (Bentzen, 2012). Corruption has encroached into the global society making it a day to day norm, therefore, United Nations, World Bank, and other international bodies have realized the need of fighting against it. Most of Corruption in political and business arenas that eventually affects the moral actions and cultural values. Corruption is common when a large sum of money, or vast quantities of products such as pharmaceuticals or even when multiple players are involved. Whenever corruption happens, a lot of money and resource are lost, thereby drawing back the countries, organizational economics, and profit collection. Furthermore, corruption taints bad images to the partners involved; therefore a significant number of individuals, states, and organizat ions strive so hard to launch fight against corruption to regain their reputation (Asongu, 2012). The fight has led to the ranking of different companies in the transparency site with Denmark at the top of the list as the less corrupt. According to corruption perception index 2016, Canada placed number nine, with a score of 82 compared to 83 in 2015 show that the country is working toward reducing corruption in all sectors (Barutciski Bandhi, 2015). However, some companies and individuals in Canada still engage in corruption activities. To that effect, there is need to restudy the corruption in the country. The paper examines the impact of corruption on the senior management and how these results are able to be alleviated. The paper narrows down to a Canadian company known as SNC Lavaln that has been prone to corruption cases. Corruption does not represent a substantial to doing business in Canada as the country poses clear regulations and transparent institutions that are liable to raising concerns and investigating allegations made about corruption, or illegal business activity (Jain, 2017). The Canadian government has placed policy and rules against bribery making the Criminal Code of Canada is the necessary policy that allows the Canadian courts, police and other public services to fights corruption, bribery, and abuse of the office. However, some percentages of Canadians still face fraud charges. Discussion and Analysis According to the corruption report done by the Canadian government, more than four in ten people always witness wrongdoing at work again creating the need to examine the transparency rate in Canada (Dan, 2016). The evidential name of the Canadian company that has faced corruption allegations and charges is the SNC Lavaln. SNC Lavalin is one of the leading engineering and construction company based in Montreal; the firm deals with wide range of products such as mining and metallurgy, oil and gas, water and both hydro and nuclear power. The company came into light of corruption in 2010 when murky report succeeded against the organization of corruption allegations. The company accused in 2008 of bribery and financial fraud that related to the renovation and modernization contract of the hydroelectric power stations in India. The investigations carried out by both the Canadian and Indian government led to the expulsion of several Indian government officials that led to the loss of about exchequer 37.45. The event prompted the Canadian government to place more emphasis on the series of ethics and compliance initiatives within the SNC Lavalin. The company faces other controversies such as the relationship between it with the Muammar Gaddafis government, which led to leaving behind of about $ 22.9 million in the Libyans banks when the company pulled out. Another controversial relationship includes that of Dr. Arthur Porter former chief executive officer of the University Health Centers that saw the company winning a controversial contract of $1.3 billion after receiving a bribe of about $22.5 million. These numbers of corruptions later in September 2013, led to blacklisting of SNC Lavalin and its affiliates from bidding on the World Banks global projects. Although it is common to all business that every activity engaged should be a profit making some activities tends to cause of bad brand image, therefore, there is profound need to protect the goodwill and acceptance of the business among the stakeholders. If a business a business .Corruption in business at most of the time affects the stakeholders mostly in the management positions. Business corruption usually occurs between the managers and official public engagement who seek t service in favor of others. Some of the favors are either legitimate or illegitimate (Vazquez 2016). Examples of the legitimate favors requested by the business from the public officials include seeking of trading rights, license, permits, and award of contract tender without following stipulated procedures while the illegitimate favors include activities that business engages to evade lawful payments such as the tax evasion, suppression of wrongdoing. Managers being the primary decision makers find it very difficult to carry out their mandates in corruption-related environments (Godinez Liu, 2016). The manager always operates between moral conscience and profit objectives and conflicts between one's legal obligations and career advancements. Decision making in a corruption-related situation is different and more difficult than deciding ethical decision-making process (Sun et al., 2011). The ethical decision-making process involves the concept of differentiating the wrong from the right, while the corruption-related decision involves consideration of the companys values, and other factors such as personal gain of wealth. The corrupt decision-making process tends to be slow in comparison to the ethical decision making. The process always tends to be time-consuming because the players involved never want to decrease the information from the public, thereby making it follow longer steps. The corruption causes difficulty in monetary decisions by the manager as the payments and the bribes always tend to raise the overall business operations (Lee Eo, 2016). The increased level of operation hinders possible growth by not allowing a free market to operate. The high operation levels always pose companies to be in financial constraint therefore affecting the ability to pay suppliers, the employees and any other subscription of any legal requirement as a result there is a slowdown of the company activities such that might lead to the expulsion of the manager from the position. Decision making in a corrupted situation is always challenging, lengthy and requires sensitivity from the management so as to prevent the scam getting into the public platform that might call on the investigations. As a result of the care taken, certain activities tend to take much time before accomplishment (Ngira, 2015). Managers always find it difficult to make decisions against the subordinate that are still caught doing suspicious activities such as bribe as many tend to argue in respect to the company or the interdicted leader. They tend to justify their situation as the business culture since also the leaders also practice it. Whichever way, decisions made by the managers, always result into either positive or negative impact to the organization (Intezari Panteen, 2016)). When a body is allegedly or charged with corruption, they tend to face significantly lower returns on assets and sales. Studies show that corporate social responsibility directly relates to the behaviors of the society that are considerable to be the source of the market to the companies. With the tainted image, some customers tend to shy away from the products and services. The reduced return places the manager in a desperate situation in making decisions due to financial constraints. When a company is corrupt, the culture tends to change making the staffs react differently as some tend to follow the leader's traits of corruption. The unwanted culture makes the management to be difficult (Dexit, 2015). The decision making in a corrupt environment is always tricky with the tainted image; the business consistently faces rejection in some business transactions and tender award and might end up blacklisted. Strategies that can be adopted in Fighting Corruption From the discussion above, there is no doubt that corruption has a significant number of adverse effects on the organization and the management decision-making process. Therefore in dealing with the crime-related situations, managers need to enlarge the frame of reference of their title to include the rejection of the stakeholder and the possibility of business closure. Good governance helps in alleviating corruption in business (Dexit, 2015). Good governance ensures strengthening of the business ethics that comprises principles and standards that offer guidance to the behavior of the stakeholders of a particular industry. Examples of business ethics include honesty, conflict of interest, fairness, communications organizational relationship education, end of impunity. The first stage of fighting corruption is always the ending of the impunity through enforcement of stringent laws and regulations that will see the culprits punished. Honesty is a virtue that requires being open and transparent in all issues, and this will help to avoid the recruitment of individual who is out to launder the organizations' resources (Asongu, 2012). The transparency will allow easy access to the organizations information that eases auditing hence reduces the probability of corruption as it put the managers under the watch. The company can also reduce the corruption activities through the creation of a stringent rule that deals with the unethical behaviors by education and training on the required business ethics. The training will ensure that the business culture is maintainable resulting in an excellent organizational relationship. The organization should always perform resource and finance management through contracting independent auditing agencies as they tend to rebuild confidence and image more than personal auditing. Fairness is the quality of embracing equitability and impartiality to all the stakeholders by following the applicable rules and laws within a given societal domain. Conflict of interest exists when different societal fields exist in the same situation differently for example when a manager has to choose between their interest and that of the group. With the aid of education among the society and the staffs, alleviation of corruption is achievable as many people can know and understand the justice and legal actions in case of such thing happen for them. The strengthening of the society to demand transparency will help in putting the organizations into accountability. Corruption in the business is preventable through the change of the top corrupt management officials and placed to face full punishment by the government (Vazquez, 2016). The government can even close down the entire international loopholes that enable the corruptible companies and individual to hide the public resources. Such moves include the launch by the European Union of Anti-Money Laundering directive that requires all members of the European Union to register all the beneficial owners of companies established with their borders even though kept out of public view. Hofstedes Model on Corruption Hofstede model designed by Greet Hofstede who based the research on the cultural diversification and differences grouped in four. These are individualistic, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and long-term orientation. The model is used to investigate and analyze corruption perception index. Culture as the independent variable to come up with dimensions that relate to corruption uncertainty avoidance; a cultural restraint relates way people respond to uncertain situation especially when decisions are needed as they prefer organization with well-established cultural values. The model explains the future orientation as the extent to which a society focuses on the organizational future that requires proper decision making in planning, controlling, and organizing. Institutional collectiveness collaborates when individuals get encouraged to be included in the groups within the organization as a result of the transparency of the company. When people join the groups, then d ecision making is straightforward and simple for the senior management. Human orientation allows the individual to have the ability to be tolerant of mistakes done with another individual at the same time hold the high degree of responsibility. Therefore business and governments must acknowledge that roles of culture in fighting corruption. Conclusion Corruption affects the economic development of an organization and a country. The unethical activity results to loss of public resources such as many, damage of the brand image, reduction of sales turn out. For the success of an organization, decisions made by the managers, and this always tends to be difficult in a corruption-related situation. The crime that takes place within a small enterprise still affects the general image of a country, thus leading to acquiring different ranking bin the transparency list. Therefore, it is upon the organizational leadership and the government to strengthen the measures placed to curb any corruption. References Asongu, S. (2012). Globalization, (Fighting) Corruption and Development: How are These Phenomena Linearly and Nonlinearly Related in Wealth Effects?. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2493263 Barutciski, M., Bandali, S. (2015). Corruption at the Intersection of Business and Government: The OECD Convention, Supply-Side Corruption and Canada's Anti-Corruption Efforts to Date. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2691496 Bentzen, J. (2012). How Bad is Corruption? Cross-country Evidence of the Impact of Corruption on Economic Prosperity. Review Of Development Economics, 16(1), 167-184. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2011.00653.x Das, N. (2016). Corruption and Corporate Corruption. Anveshana: Search For Knowledge, 6(2), 101. https://dx.doi.org/10.23872/aj/2016/v6/i2/139212 Dixit, A. (2015). How Business Community Institutions Can Help Fight Corruption. The World Bank Economic Review, 29(suppl 1), S25-S47. https://dx.doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhv016 Godinez, J., Liu, L. (2016). Corruption and Its Effects on FDI: Analysing the Interaction Between the Corruption Levels of the Home and Host Countries and Its Effects at the Decision-Making Level. Journal Of Business Ethics. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3380-7 Intezari, A., Pauleen, D. (2017). Conceptualizing Wise Management Decision-Making: A Grounded Theory Approach. Decision Sciences. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/deci.12267 Jain, A. (2017). Fighting corruption: contemporary measures in Canada. Canadian Foreign Policy Journal, 23(1), 93-116. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/11926422.2016.1270846 Lee, K., Eo, Y. (2016). The impact of corruption on budgetary decision making for disaster management in local government. The Korean Journal Of Local Government Studies, 20(2), 153-179. https://dx.doi.org/10.20484/klog.20.2.7 Ngira, D. (2015). Corruption and Human Rights: The Role of Judicial Activism in the 'Fight' Against Corruption. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2670770 Sun, Y., Li, S., Bonini, N., Su, Y. (2011). Graph-Framing Effects in Decision Making. Journal Of Behavioral Decision Making, 25(5), 491-501. https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/bdm.749 Vazquez, P. (2016). Family Business Ethics: At the Crossroads of Business Ethics and Family Business. Journal Of Business Ethics. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3171-1

Photos of Vietnam War

Table of Contents Introduction Reflexive-dialogic introduction Literature review Analytic section Conclusions Reference List Appendices Introduction Experiences of journalists in the Vietnam War changed media reporting of wars today. The media reported uncensored events of the war to the public. These stories and photographs changed the public’s opinion about the war. The War took place between 1957 and 1975 in South Vietnam.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Photos of Vietnam War specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Vietnam War claimed over 60,000 American soldiers and over 2 million Vietnamese. These figures are estimates as the exact number of casualties are extremely difficult to know. Arguably, this was the most unpopular war among Americans. Critics and veterans believed that explicit and negative coverage of the war changed public opinion about it. Media have the capacity to shape opinions i.e. they can change the way we â€Å"think, feel, and react about situations and events† (Altheide, 2009). This explains why the two iconic photos changed Americans view about the War. The first one depicts napalmed child (Accident Napalm of 1972). The second is the execution of an alleged Viet Cong soldier by an American marine in the street of Saigon (Tet Execution of 1968). The review of literature and analysis shall show effects of the mass media on viewers and their views regarding the war. The analysis shall also involve common themes that emerged during the war due to media involvement and iconic photos that changed reporting style of subsequent wars. These two photos reflect moments of horrors during the Vietnam War. Critics considered these images iconic because of emotions they created among American viewers. In order to understand image representations of the Vietnam War, this study shall rely on semiotic analyses of photos through identifications of central ideas . We shall explore meanings behind photographs using signs and expressions, and how they relate to cultural aspects of society. Semiotic analyses enable us to understand meanings attributed to images and viewers’ perceptions of images in a given social context.Advertising Looking for dissertation on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Different aspects of these photos can have different meanings to different people based on their cultural orientations. These iconic photos reveal the importance of photojournalism in reporting war events. Reflexive-dialogic introduction It is not possible to explain why the US government did not regulate media coverage of the Vietnam War. Americans watched all events of the war and viewed photographs obtained during the war. The media raised public concerns about the war and the rising number of casualties of the US soldiers. The question is whether events of the Vietnam War c reated better opportunities for media reporters, photographers and commentators to question Americans involvement in the War. The role of the media in the Vietnam War also raises issues of what the media ought to censor and report to the public. For instance, issues of Tet Offensive, Accidental Napalm, and other gruesome events that showed death and massive destruction created impressions that the Vietnam War was like that in Saigon and other areas. It could be that media representations of the war angered soldiers. Soldiers believed that media had biased reporting especially in the Tet Offensive where the media portrayed that the US was losing the battle, and the only way out was to withdraw from the war. This is because a section of the media portrayed dead US soldiers killed during the war. This kind of reporting gave critics opportunities to accuse mass media of bias. On the other hand, the media also claimed that they were reflecting perception of Americans regarding the war. M any issues could have changed Americans’ opinions about the war. These could have been increases in taxes to cater for costs of the war and the rising number of casualties. These issues were influential during the war than media reporting. Critics wonder whether media undermined activities of soldiers and the government in the Vietnam War.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Photos of Vietnam War specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The clash between the military and the media is inevitable. The media need to report events as they are while the military focuses on winning the war and minimizing the number of casualties. Reporting these events means freedom, complete access to news, no censorship and rapid communications of news to the audience by media. Conversely, the military wants restricted access and control of information. The media believe that attempts by the military to restrict access only aim at protecting their mistakes and enhancing their public image. These issues and differences remain crucial to relationships between the media and the military. The media and military can work together. However, there is always a strange sense of animosity that can ruin such efforts of working together. This happens due to lack of understanding between the media and the military. Based on their opposing objectives and missions, the relationship between the media and military shall remain strained. Literature review In the beginning of the Vietnam War, many correspondents expressed their supports for the war. At the time, the media did not question the US involvement in the Vietnam War. In fact, the media roles were to inform the US public and portray positive sides of the war. However, this trend changed with the Vietnam War as reporters and photographs started questioning the US government intentions and its roles in the war. The media focused on doubts and growing numbers of war casu alties. As a result, the public changed its opinion about the war. Reporters and photographers portrayed sad pictures and horrifying scenes of the Vietnam War. According to Allen and Seaton, wrong representations of war by photojournalists can create confusion and misunderstanding among audience (Allen and Seaton, 1999). These authors argue that media coverage is responsible for misunderstanding due to lack of adequate information. For instance, media portrayed that the US was losing the war and that there were increasing casualties and atrocities. Scholars have noted that this happened because of total freedom the media got in covering the Vietnam War and reporting what they wished. This is how the media bias influenced Americans against the war. On the other hand, Allan highlights how the Vietnam War changed war reporting today.Advertising Looking for dissertation on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This is what he refers to as objective reporting in the mass media (Allan, 2010). Allan looks at factors like cultural dynamism, racism, and sexism, and how they shape news reporting. The author also takes into consideration the role of various institutions, viewers, and practices of the media in reporting news. As the media started to report atrocities of the war and its politics, the public confidence changed. Americans doubted the government’s account about the war. The media resorted to investigative journalism in order to ascertain facts behind news the government released to the public. Before then, Allen and Seaton noted that media portrayal of wars fuelled hatred and ethnic loyalties. They also depicted how relying on vague and unfounded claims could trigger negative perceptions about the war (Allen and Seaton, 1999). Photographs and reports played significant roles in changing the public opinion against the government and the war. Misrepresentation of information by the media led the public to believe that the US soldiers had lost the war. The media acted as crucial sources of information for the public. On this note, Altheide notes that mass media can shape the content and form of war experiences (Altheide, 2009). Altheide focuses on mass media and their effects on propaganda, war on terrorism, and events after the 9/11 twin attacks. The author argues that it is fear that is responsible for the changing discourse and social meanings of wars. The author further looks at intervention strategies and how media stories influence future responses. Following claims that the US could not win the War at Tet Offensive, the US government decided that the public should receive optimistic news. This marked the regulation of contents the public could access. Since the US government did not censor news reporting, the public could receive photographs and live horrors of the war. People made films and accessed brutal images of the war. Photographs of the war s hocked the general public and significantly shifted the people’s opinion against the war. At the same time, â€Å"power of photography came to light, and how it could show brutality and assaults of the war† (Allan, 2010). Both still and moving pictures had significant influences about the horror of the war. Whereas the Vietnam War representations in motion pictures took new turns with symbols, images, and metaphors, still pictures remained factual representations of the war. Consequently, scholars have studied major themes relating to social, political, and cultural meanings of these films (Auster and Quart, 1988). The famous photo where General Nguyen Ngoc Loan executes a Viet Cong soldier in the street of Saigon (Tet Execution) has gained recognition over time. The General shot the soldier in a street before cameras. This photograph was responsible for increasing resentment among Americans about the war. This execution helped people change their opinions about the wa r and the role of the US government in the Vietnam War. Another photograph of interest is the photo of â€Å"a nine-year-old girl fleeing naked and shouting after sustaining serious burn from the napalm† (Accidental Napalm 1972). There were also other photographs of massive influence. These included a photo of a Buddhist monk protesting against the war by burning himself to death, and at home, the Kent State University protest. These photographs played crucial roles in bringing real images of the war to the public. Americans did not like what they saw on televisions and read on newspapers. Cottle observes that news and reporting are not neutral among different cultures. As a result, messages have cultural meanings and assumptions about various societies (Cottle, 2004). Photographs are best forms of representations. However, in the modern time, influences of photographs representation in wars have stirred different political and ideological concerns. We cannot separate photogr aph representations from the culture of journalism and the public they serve. Allen and Seaton note that media reporting should go behind ethnicity and relations to cultural context when reporting events (Allen and Seaton, 1999). They note that due to lack of sufficient information, the media may create misunderstanding. According to these authors, ethnicity is dynamic and has different constructions. Contemporary society has come with methods of regulating access to information, pictures and films through rating their contents to different viewers. This is a way of creating and enhancing preferred values and ideologies among viewers. However, restrictions of representations can achieve limited result. This is because images can have their own lives before the audience. In addition, they cannot have fixed and concrete meaning. Representations of images always create a gap between intended meanings and realized meanings. From the above observation, we can note that representations ma y create errors, misunderstanding, and inconsistency. Thus, we cannot guarantee factual representations based on interpretation of signs in various cultures. According to Andersen, the relationship between the media and war is deep. She notes that the focus is on the public’s perception (Andersen, 2006). Therefore, reporting helps in justification of wars and influence future wars. The author argues that war consists of â€Å"death and suffering, protest and pain, guilt and abuse and struggle for representation† (Andersen, 2006). However, this representation has changed over time as methods of reporting have changed, and censorship and propaganda have acquired new meanings. The author argues that technology has transformed representation of war as the film industry has changed wars into forms of entertainment. On war and propaganda, Hammond notes that changes have occurred. He concludes that Western military operation has acquired new dimensions of representation using new technologies that promote propaganda (Hammond, 2007; Cottle, 2004). In this view, Hammond notes that the media only serves to accelerate wars due to diverse misconceptions and political interests. The author also observes that power is at the central, and its projection leads to a lack of cohesion and orientation at home. Anderegg and Grey looked at various films representing the Vietnam War and noted that such representations used myths and metaphors in order to reflect glamorised standards of Hollywood (Anderegg, 1991; Grey, 1992). Anderegg also noted that later representations of the Vietnam War strived to capture real events but with new twists and myths. The author was keen on representations of issues regarding â€Å"power and powerlessness of victims and soldiers, gender roles, and racial views these films captured† (Anderegg, 1991). He also noted how teaching of the Vietnam War changed regarding contents and the intended audience. Photographs acted as means of re presenting the war in Vietnam to Americans. The US public believed that photographs had accurate representations of the war. The reasons for the US withdrawal from the war may not be certain. However, it is clear that photos and live reporting of events significantly swayed the public opinion about the war. Gilboa takes a cross-cultural look in an attempt to understand the relationship between media and wars. The author notes that media reporting is necessary in conflict management, resolution and transformation. In this case, the media influence conflict representation particularly with identity and ethnicity (Gilboa, 2002). According to Der Derian, technology and video game industry have created flawed systems in real wars and responses (Der Derian, 2009; Franklin, 2000). According to the author, the US has blundered due to over reliance on technology, virtue, and threats of terror. He also notes that technological representations of wars depict a low risk affair. Representations of the Vietnam War took different aspects. Hixson portrays various ways in which people have kept memories of the war (Hixson, 2000). However, these representations deviated from actual events as films begun to produce motion pictures for commercial purposes. According to Sturken, representations of the Vietnam War and AIDS epidemic have transformed the US culture. The author looks at effects of camera images on cultural memory, media fantasy, trauma that survivors experience and how healing processes can smooth tensions. Scholars portray a culture of amnesia among Americans when it comes to recalling events of war (Sturken, 1997; Buzzanco, 1999). Analytic section From the Vietnam War, we can note three significant events. First, photojournalism changed the history of war reporting. Second, the media attempts to reveal the truth led Americans to doubt their government. Finally, televisions and photographs were significant in shaping the public’s perceptions about the war. Cri tics believe that the media had a negative impact on Americans regarding the outcome of the Vietnam War. The media reporting portrayed images of horror that the public could not withstand. We must understand that the media supported this war during early stages of the US involvement. However, television coverage and photographs changed Americans perception about the war. The biased reporting only concentrated on actions of the US soldiers and ignored atrocities that North Vietnam committed. As a result, the anti-war demonstrations gained the media attention. Journalists and media pundits have debated the war reporting and its impacts on the public for many years. However, critics believe that it is only veterans who can give true accounts of the war. This is because media main concerns are reporting events without understanding their meanings. As a result, war veterans believed that the television reporting distorted news by misrepresentation. For instance, they made the public beli eve that the US had lost the war while reality at the field was different. Critics also believe that the media portrayed anti-war demonstrators as traitors. The media claimed that anti-war demonstrators were sympathizers of the US enemies. In addition, the media only concentrated on violet aspects of the anti-war demonstrations. Critics believed that the media engaged in extremism so as to gain the public’s attention. As a result, the anti-war movement gained popularity through defiant definitions that various media portrayed. This is manipulation of the media. It created a distant public from the government. The media ignored values and ideas the anti-war movement proclaimed. Instead, it concentrated on portraying violence associated with the protest. Media scholars also believe that pessimistic war intentions did not originate from the media. This happened because the public did not understand the working style of the media. In fact, people believed that the media were mere transmitters of facts and news as they happened at the battle field. In this regard, the critical role many scholars attribute to media is beyond their attention. Changes in reporting styles after the Tet Offensive simply reflected changes in events of the war, sources, and the government role in attempts to regulate contents. In addition, the media reporting of the anti-war movement showed that they were not responsible for actions of protestors. Photographs have remained vital sources of information. Photographs are easier to recall than words. Images can influence or trigger different emotions in people. As a result, such emotions influence interpretation of photos. Influences of photos vary from individuals. However, scholars generally agree that photos have high capacity for memory, are less complex than words, and appeal to majorities. People may debate on what features make images or photos iconic. The Accidental Napalm photo remains an iconic image of the Vietnam War. This is because the image of a naked running girl cannot easily disappear from Americans’ minds. This image shows cruelty of the war. This photo attained the status of an iconic image because everyone could recognize and understand it. It captures a moment of history and creates a strong sense of emotions among audience. This photo had the capacity to ignite various views about the war. The media made the image and distributed it within their systems making the photo an icon. It created waves of negative reactions, prominence, subject of the war, and cultural aspects. Accidental Napalm photo is an image reflecting the nudity of the burning and shouting girl. This photo violated cultural concerns about nudity in order to excite debate about immorality of the war. The public should not have access to this picture. It shows what we should not see and an event that should not have occurred. In views of feminists, the naked girl depicts a victimized female figure during wars. This is t o say it is the women and children who suffer in the event of any war. There is a clear difference between the soldiers walking and children running from terror. The image can also lead to question the responsibility of soldiers to children during times of wars. The public cannot control their emotions when confronted with this photo. The photo evokes a sense of terror, pain, and pity. This photo remains the significant work of photojournalism in the history of war. A semiotic analysis reveals that attentions of viewers are on the nude girl. The photo does not provide much detail. However, we can see that the war claimed the innocence of a young girl rendering her nude and powerless before the soldiers and photographers who captured her nudity. The boy in the photo depicts terror of the war. All the children in this photo depict stiff contrast from the soldiers herding them down the street. It is also significant to note that these children do not have any parents in the photo. It r emains unclear whether the war had claimed their parents. The action of directing these children may show power of the soldiers over the war victims. The photo’s background shows thick and dark smoke. The dark smoke shows an image of threatening and risky situation during the battle. â€Å"The children from left to right are: Phan Thanh Tam, younger brother of Kim Phuc, who lost an eye, Phan Thanh Phouc, youngest brother of Kim Phuc, Kim Phuc, and Kim’s cousins Ho Van Bon, and Ho Thi Ting. Behind them are soldiers of the Vietnam Army 25th Division, June 8, 1972† (Nick Ut/AP Photo). Another photo of interest is the Tet Execution. The photo shows General Nguyen Ngoc Loan as he shoots a captured Viet Cong enemy at a close range. The national televisions aired this execution. However, it is the still picture that grabbed the viewers’ attention. The photo highlighted the facial expression of the war captive than did the live coverage of televisions. The photo became an iconic image because of the prominence and instantaneous influence it achieved. Still photos remain the most influential forms of representation in the world. The General and enemy only have a small gun between them. The photo is simple, but it shows the reality of war i.e. man-to-man confrontation where the aggressor and enemy are face-to-face. This photo shows the real brutality of the Vietnam War. The General does not indicate any emotion. The act of executing enemies is normal to him. On the other hand, Viet Cong’s expression generates feelings of empathy among audience. DURING: 1 February 1968 the national police chief of South Vietnam, General Nguyen Ngoc Loan shooting the enemy suspect in the head (Eddie Adams photo). The photo of Tet Execution shows how photography achieved influence in the photojournalism. We cannot assume the fact that the General was aware of the presence of the camera. Thus, he turned his back to hide his feelings and purpose. Converse ly, we can see an expression of a man waiting for the unknown in the prisoner. The prisoner’s dress code and hair are the opposite of the General who expresses power in his military attire. The prisoner may not be a military officer after all. Instead, he might be a civilian experiencing the cruelty of the war. The General shows disregard for the normal justice system. This image only depicts hatred that exists among soldiers during wars. The war depicted a show of power among soldiers (Anderegg, 1991). The General clearly expresses and flexes his muscles as he prepares to shoot his victim. On the other hand, the victim remains powerless since his hands are behind his back, tied thus, denying him the chance to defend himself. The victim’s acceptance of his fate is evident in his motionless body. The prisoner knows it is pointless in trying to defend himself or escape. There is also a soldier who cannot believe the proceeding event. As a result, he is holding his teeth tightly because of this inhumane act. The soldier has protective helmet, unlike the Viet Cong captive. This Tet Execution arouses feelings of empathy and portrays the General as a villain and the prisoner as a hero. We cannot completely understand circumstances of the photo. However, we can note that it is inhumane act against a helpless war victim. Therefore, the photo communicates the main act of war, which is to kill an enemy. As a result, viewers could experience atrocities that permeated the Vietnam War. In the view of Donald and McDonald, the image of Tet Execution can have significant influence on reinforcing masculinity among boys (Donald and MacDonald, 2011). The General’s victory over the victim can aid in reinforcing the male stereotype associated with combats and winning as these images are responsible for defining manly courage. Such images depicting the apotheosis of the US soldiers in wars are the current representations of the Vietnam War in various media as S locum portrays (Slocum, 2006; Lembcke, 1998). Conclusions Various scholars have expressed their ideas about the relationship between the media and war. From this point, we can understand the impact of iconic images of the Vietnam War through semiotic analysis. These photos show general features of powerlessness, emotions, and innocence that were present in the Vietnam War. We can now understand why these photos triggered emotions among American audience. The Accidental Napalm and Tet Execution arouse strong emotions of panic, fear, and pain among viewers making them iconic images of the war. Semiotic analyses of these photos show that they are capable of arousing strong emotions among viewers. Viewers can easily relate these photos to distress, loss of lives, unpleasant experiences, and terror of the war. These photos are icons of outrage and atrocities of the war, and viewers not accustomed to such scenes can easily have negative emotions. Photographs also captured innocence of the victims. These photos showed how innocent victims lost their lives during the war. The Tet Execution depicts the prisoner as an ordinary citizen and not an army officer. However, we learned that the victim was a Viet Cong soldier. The inhumane execution of this soldier shows disregard for the rule of the law and deviation from the concept of the war. The Accidental Napalm shows the innocence of the children caught in the middle of the battle. The photo depicts how the war stripped the little girl’s innocence. The absence of any parent in the photo also raises concerns about the fate of these children. The war has left these children to fend for each other. These photos also depict war victims who have no power to defend themselves. The Viet Cong is unable to defend himself against the General and soldiers. This sense of powerlessness reflects what the war has caused in South Vietnam. The little girl also remains powerless to events taking place in her country. These photos r emain crucial in representations of the Vietnam War. They also mark the role of photojournalism in depicting actual images of the war. Reference List Allan, S 2010, News Culture, Open University Press, New York. Allen, T and Seaton, J 1999, The Media of Conflict: War Reporting and Representations of Ethnic Violence, Zed Books, New York. Altheide, D 2009, Terror Post-9/11 and Media, Peter Lang, New York. Anderegg, M 1991, Inventing Vietnam: The War in Film and Television, Temple University Press, Philadelphia. Andersen, R 2006, A Century of Media, a Century of War, Peter Lang, New York. Auster, A and Quart, L 1988, How the War was Remembered: Hollywood and Vietnam, Praeger, New York. Buzzanco, R 1999, Vietnam and the Transformation of American Life, Blackwell Publishers, Malden. Cottle, S 2004, News, Public Relations and Power, Sage, London. Der Derian, J 2009, Virtuous War: Mapping the Military-Industrial-Media- Entertainment Network, 2nd edn, Westview Press, Colorado. Donald, R and MacDonald, K 2011, Reel Men at War: Masculinity and the American War Film, Scarecrow Press, Lanham MD. Franklin, B 2000, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst. Gilboa, E 2002, Media and Conflict: Framing Issues, Making Policy, Shaping Opinions, Transnational, Ardsley, NY. Grey, J 1992, Vietnam: War, Myth and Memory: Comparative Perspectives on Australia’s War, Allen Unwin, St Leonards. Hammond, P 2007, Media, War and Postmodernity, Routledge, London. Hixson, W 2000, Historical Memory and Representations of the Vietnam War, Garland Publishers, New York. Lembcke, J 1998, The Spitting Image: Myth, Memory, and the Legacy of Vietnam, New York UP, New York. Slocum, D 2006, Hollywood and War, The Film Reader, Routledge, London. Sturken, M 1997, Tangled Memories: The Vietnam War, the AIDS Epidemic, and the Politics of Remembering, University of California Press, Berkeley. Appendices Bombs with a mixture of napalm and white phosphorus jell y dropped by Vietnamese Air Force Skyraider bombers explode across Route 1, amid homes and in front of the Cao Dai temple on the outskirts of Trang Bang, Vietnam, June 8, 1972. (Nick Ut/AP Photo) Nick Ut took this image seconds after his famous shot, of Kim Phuc running down the street. Television crews and South Vietnamese troops surround 9-year-old Kim Phuc on Route 1 near Trang Bang, South Vietnam, after she was burned by a misdirected aerial napalm attack, June 8, 1972. (Nick Ut/AP) Phan Tai Kim Phuc, 9, is comforted by her mother in a Saigon, Vietnam, hospital, two days after she was severely burned during a misplaced napalm attack on her village, June 10, 1972.(Robinson/AP Photo) From right, Associated Press staff photographer Nick Ut, Phan Thi Kim Phuc and Dr. My Le, who treated Kim Phuc two days after a napalm attack in Vietnam 40 years ago, sit together during a reunion in Buena Park, Calif., June 2, 2012. (Jae C. Hong/AP Photo) Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II, righ t, opens the new Welcome Wing of London‘s Science Museum with Associated Press photographer Nick Ut, left and Phan Thi Kim Phuc, centre, June 27, 2000. Ut’s image of Kim is featured in the museum. (Ian Jones/AP Photo) BEFORE: South Vietnamese forces escort suspected Viet Cong officer Nguyen Van Lem (also known as Bay Lop) on a Saigon street Feb. 1, 1968, early in the Tet Offensive. (AP Photo/Eddie Adams AFTER: The victim falls dead on the ground and police chief calmly puts the gun back January 9, 1964 a soldier of the Army of South Vietnam stabs a farmer, assuming that he was lying on the movements of the Viet Cong – North Vietnamese soldiers. (AP Photo/Horst Faas) This dissertation on Photos of Vietnam War was written and submitted by user Franco Byers to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Common Wealth Economics for a Crowded Planet

Common Wealth Economics for a Crowded Planet The book â€Å"Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet† is written by Jeffrey Sachs, a famous economist from the Columbia University. His work is devoted to the economic problems of our planet and to the global issues in general. The author focuses on the existing threats for the global population in different spheres of life and presents various ways of improving the situation. In this book, both the environmental and human-caused problems are analyzed.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to the author, there is a number of problems which need to be solved in the nearest future. These are overpopulation, poverty, irrational use of natural resources, unhealthy economy, urbanization, environmental crisis, climate change, etc. Sachs illustrates every issue with many considerable examples; what is more, the author gives th e diachronic evaluation of the issues, which means comparison of the situation throughout the flow of time. The main point of the book is showing that all the mentioned problems were caused by humans. The author even mentions the HIPPO term, which stands for the consequences of human activities: Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, Population increase, and Over-harvesting. Sachs outlines marine fisheries and various species of animals as those most badly affected by humans and proves that the climate change is also a result of human activities. In addition, one of the most important problems outlined by Sachs is proper organization of the world economy and international policy, as far s that the gap between the developed countries and the countries of the third world is expanding gradually. All the statements are supported by numerous statistical data, which makes the author very convincing. Sachs presents a number of solutions for the problems he defined. Firstly, he o ffers four possible policies which can reduce the harm caused to the environment. Among them is taxing the companies which pollute air and water. Secondly, the author describes carbon capture and sequestration or using hybrid cars as a way of preventing the climate change. Thirdly, Sachs points to the need of economizing the water resources. Next, the author mentions lowering the total fertility as a method of halting the population growth. Finally, few phases are presented for countries to go through in order to improve the economical situation in the world. In my opinion, all the raised issues and set goals are very objective and important. The author proved to be very inventive while presenting his ideas about how to overcome the global problems in all the spheres of human life. I liked the idea of abiding the Geneva Convention and the Convention of Biological Diversity, which will help to save the environment with its various species.Advertising Looking for report on bus iness economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Another issue which is very important and is explained in details is overcoming the poverty traps. The author mentions the countries where the violent behavior and high crime level is caused by an extreme poverty. To fight such results, he offers public works projects, increase the number of educational establishments, increase the agriculture productivity etc. I think that these suggestions can and should be implemented in life and that they can serve as an instrument for developing both the healthy economy and healthy thinking of the nation. Besides the mentioned points, however, there are some ideas which seem to be either not realistic or not really helpful. For example, the general overpopulation of the Earth is caused mostly by the countries of the third world, where the demographic situation is uncontrolled by Government. Nowadays, however, many people in Europe, espec ially in developed countries like German prefer being sterilized to having children due to a set of reasons, such as career or dissatisfactory material state. That is why the idea of regulating the population growth seems to be irrational: while some countries indeed need this policy, others may need the reverse program to be implemented. Another issue which I found confusing is preventing the air pollution. Sachs mentions the mechanisms for collecting the carbon dioxide from smoke stacks or straight from the sky. In my point of view, this solution should be developed further, as the gathered substance also needs to be kept somewhere. So is there point in constructing the new buildings for keeping the carbon dioxide inside? In addition, what size should one of such buildings have to be able to keep even a daily amount of the substance produced by one factory? I think that this idea and its effectiveness are rather doubtful. Moreover, although the idea of global economy and cooperati on seems to be effective, Sachs did not take into consideration the fact that it still has to be governed by someone. Even if all the most powerful countries unite in order to help the poorer ones, they still would need a leader who would control their work. As a consequence, such policy can lead to international conflicts.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The book †Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet† by Sachs is an objective critical analysis of the current economical and social situation of the world. Unlike the other books related to the same issues, it is very global and complex. The author manages to cover all the burning issues of the modern world and stick to one fibula. What is more, Sachs doesn’t use any euphemisms to talk about the problems. Being extremely strict and confident, he sounds very convi ncing. This makes the book especially interesting for those who are eager to know the real economical and political situation of the world. All in all, Sachs does not only present a book on Economics, but also gives a detailed analysis of the existing world problems and tries to develop a plan for their solution.

Publishing Horror Stories

Publishing Horror Stories Publishing Horror Stories Publishing Horror Stories By Sharon Want to know which mistakes to avoid? Heres a publishers perspective. In the latest issue of Publishing Basics, Carolyn Madison reveals some of the errors that make publishers cringe. These include misspellings, poor grammar and punctuation, structural problems, ambiguous messages and inaccurate content. They have a nice list of the always common misspelled words also: Affect or Effect Ensure, Insure, or Assure It’s or Its Two, Too, or To Set or Sit Then or Than There, Their, or They’re That, Which, Who, Whom, or Whose Like or As if Roll or Role Quite or Quiet Though or Thorough Since or Because Should of or Should have Less or Fewer Amount of or Number of Over or More than Capitol or Capital Check out the full list of publishing horror stories. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Fiction Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Idioms About Numbers41 Words That Are Better Than Good20 Ways to Laugh

An Examination of Means of Application and Core Function in Predicting Assignment

An Examination of Means of Application and Core Function in Predicting Crime - Assignment Example Using the example of the New York City Police Department, given in the prompt for this essay, one understands that the key inputs that the police department interfaces with in regards to building the outputs and feedbacks that are generated is made available through a weekly process of data input. In this way, personnel from New York City Police Department’s precincts, service areas, and transit districts compile a statistical summary or overview of the week’s crime data. In this way, crime patterns, arrests, complaints, and other verifiable and measurable data of significance are collated and entered into a database. This process represents the input phase, or data gathering phase that forms the very backbone of the process of CompStat. It is important to note that this process itself is the most important as it is the only stage in the process where human inputs can directly affect and oftentimes skew the results that are reported. For this reason, an individual depar tment has been set up within the Chief of Police’s office; labeled as the CompStat Unit. As such, the unit is directly responsible for winnowing, sorting, and inputting in the correct fashion, any and all pertinent information that could be of use with reference to developing a type of predictive policing to ultimately reduce the level of crime displayed within the city’s regions and precincts. ... For this reason, an individual department has been set up within the Chief of Police’s office; labeled as the CompStat Unit (Willis et al 2012). As such, the unit is directly responsible for winnowing, sorting, and inputting in the correct fashion, any and all pertinent information that could be of use with reference to developing a type of predictive policing to ultimately reduce the level of crime displayed within the city’s regions and precincts. Once the inputs have been entered into the system, the second phase of analysis then takes place; that of processing of the determinant data. This stage is reliant not upon the level of analysis that individual humans would otherwise perform; rather, it is entirely dependent upon the algorithms and likelihood matrixes that CompStat itself can infer from the inputs it has been given. As with the old cliche with regards to a computer program only being as good as the programmers that programmed the code, the same is true with relation to CompStat as it is but a tool and should not be seen as a perfect representation truth or overall infallibility. As has been stated with the input stage that has previously been discussed, the processing of the data and the outputs that it ultimately yield is solely reliant on the quality and voracity of the information that is loaded into the system. In other words, only a quality level of inputs will be processed and related into a quality level of outputs from which a degree of reasonable and actionable inference could foreseeably be drawn. The heart of the CompStat process therefore relies on each step of the process; however, for purposes of evaluation, the third step, or the outputs, is of perhaps the most interest. Within this step, a team of

Should priciples of justice in a community begin with the maximin Essay

Should priciples of justice in a community begin with the maximin assumption evident in John Rawls' work A theory of justice - Essay Example Rawls was primarily concerned with questions of how best social justice could be organized as a â€Å"basis structure† in a liberal and democratic society (Ibid: 6). For Rawls, his idea of justice was directed at how a societys main political, social, and economic institutions should cooperate together in distributing fundamental rights and duties to everyone in an ordered society (Ibid: 6). His objective of A Theory of Justice, published in 1971, was to provide an alternative solution to the then dominant utilitarian principle of justice, which held that, a society is â€Å"right and morally just,† if major institutions maximized what is intrinsically good, to the satisfaction of the vast majority of people in a society (Ibid: 21). In rejecting the utilitarian principle of utiltiy, Rawls set forth his conception of justice, which was egalitarian in nature. It would perhaps be helpful to look at some definitions of justice, before analyzing Rawlss conception of justice. The dictionary of legal theory define justice as the set of moral and political constrains on human interactions (Bix, 2004: 108). There have been significant debates about the nature and source of standards of justice, and some sceptical thinkers argued that standards of justice were grounded only in the conventional views of society, or in a communitys traditions (Ibid: 108). Other theories viewed the principles of justice as a general agreement among people under certain ideal conditions. A traditional view of justice described standards that are eternal and unchangeable, established by God, the nature of the universe, human nature, or some combination of these (Ibid). D.D.Raphael (2001:1), a theorist of justice, recognized justice as a complex concept that pervaded social thought, and is basic to law, ethics, and politics alike (Raphael:1). In social and political ethics,

African Americans in Pop Culture Essay Example for Free

African Americans in Pop Culture Essay African Americans have had an incredible lasting impression on popular culture. African American singers, artists, entrepreneurs, athletes and actors have all had their say and have really stood out within the past few years. Theyve also grown and not grown in different ways all around from music, to television, to movies. African American stereotypes still exist in all aspects of pop culture, while many are trying to get away from what audiences assume is the typical black person. African Americans have been fighting for and against their own stereotypes when they started breaking out into music, then branching out into television, and making it big in the film industry. Theyve gone from being the dumb, uneducated, and underprivileged minority of America, and have started to make themselves more known as gang bangers and thugs, which are often seen as heroes in popular culture. African Americans havent only made a name for themselves or left a footprint in only their culture, but in American culture all around. African Americans have been making their mark in music all throughout history. Many started with the jazz and bebop rebellion during the 1940s and 50s in Detroit. They made their point by trying to be different. They didnt want to follow the typical white, swing music criteria, and thats exactly what happened. Bebop wasnt so mainstream, and thats what made it their own. They preferred small, unique combos to play instead of big named stars in the music industry. Detroit was shedding light on the working class people of the town and wanted to really make a sound for them. â€Å"The 1940s created an â€Å"afro-modernism,† a response to the urbanization, industrialization, and modernization of African American Culture. † Because of their movement ahead in music, they also made their movement in business. And so emerged an incredibly successful, black capitalist enterprise, Motown Records, founded by Barry Gordy. Along with the movement in Detroit, the Harlem Renaissance had happened even before all the rage for jazz and bebop, which raised awareness to the visual arts, which led to even more developments in music. And even earlier at the beginning of the 20th century, blacks were starting to be accepted into acclaimed schools to study music and they were allowed to join the base of white people in symphony orchestras. During the 50s, doo-wop and soul music became popular. Thats when legends like Ray Charles emerged and paved the way for others. Soul music remained popular among blacks for long after the pop sounds started to wave through. By the end of the decade and moving into the 70s, blacks were starting to crossover into the typical white music trends. Psychadelic music had become popular. Jimi Hendrix, along his wah-wah pedal innovation, became one of the most popular guitarists during the era. Right after that, soul had become the popular music in the black community and was starting to revolutionize African-American music. Soul had continued success in popularity during the 70s, but the 70s also brought along a rise in black bands. White people were listening to country, disco, and all sorts of rock music, while the African-Americans had their funk, pop, soul, and jazz music that was on a totally different spectrum from their white counterparts. The 70s was also when Djs started mixing their own beats and playing their funk records the way they wanted to so they could get their audience to dance. And with the beats produced by Djs along with the poets who would read their poems to those beats, came the emergence of hip hop music. The era of hip hop music was a new revolution in African American popular culture.

Cheap Labour: Canada :: essays research papers

Cheap Labour: Canada Canada, the so-called land of opportunities. This statement is a known fact due to the large amount of people immigrating to our country. It all started back in the 50's and is still occurring in the 90's. I will be discussing the different working mentalities between French Canadians and immigrants coming from various parts of the world. I will compare "Voiceless People" by Marco Micone, and White Niggers of America by Pierre Vallieres. White Niggers emphasizes on the mentality of French Canadian working class and Voiceless People emphasizes on immigrant's mentality towards working, which in this case is the Italian community. After reading "Rivalry Over the Ethnic Minorities", it was like reading my own family's past when they immigrated in Quebec back in the early 70's. Many Greek immigrants who immigrated from their native country followed the same pattern towards finding happiness. Like most of the French, they worked long hard hours in bad working conditions and not so great pay. These sweatshops represent the first act of action to climb up the social ladder. But for the immigrants, it meant much more: they have these jobs in order to save up some money for the future, by a nice house and reach the next step in social ladder. Most of the time, the immigrants would buy their home in other neighborhoods; they would change community because it reflected their new social situation. Because they have more money, they can move to an area where people of the same nationality live. They will leave the French back in the city where they will keep on working long hours because they never saved up or invested their money. The main point I'm trying to show is that the immigrants have a stronger ambition and desire to become more successful than the French do, maybe because they are not at home and threatened by others. This is the world view almost all immigrants have and this concept has a major effect on their lives. Voiceless People is exactly the same scenario for Antonio and his family. Antonio came here very poor and unable to speak a word of French. He started working in factories with very bad pay and even worse working conditions. Just like the typical immigrant, he never gave up, didn't let anyone put him down, continued to work because he had an ambition to become successful and buy a house knowing that he earned it with his own sweat. As a newcomer to this country, he seemed to succeed with great facility, unlike many French Canadians who seem somehow jealous of the immigrants who tend to succeed with such bad

Quality Management within Toyota Motor Company Essay

Abstract This paper explores multiple published articles discussing Toyota Motor Company’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. A review of Toyota’s decisions to hide important information prior to recalls leads us to a discussion of where Toyota can go from here. The paper includes recommendations for Toyota Motor Company in order to move forward after their 2010 recalls. In addition, organizational changes will assist Toyota Motor Company in overcoming their recall problems. Quality Management within Toyota Motor Company After a number of discouraging recalls at Toyota Motor Company in 2010, a number of quality management techniques were implemented. Toyota Motor Company’s SWOT Analysis played into the newly implemented quality management techniques. Toyota’s strengths allowed them to fight back quickly against these recalls that could have ultimately led to Toyota’s fall from one of the top motor company’s. Toyota Motor Company’s strengths include dominant position in the marketplace, strong brand recognition, strong focus on research and development, and broad production and distribution network. In addition to Toyota’s strengths, their weaknesses were reviewed in order to find opportunities to capitalize upon. The recalls were obviously a large weakness at Toyota. Opportunities were reviewed which included the growth of the global automotive industry. Last, Toyota’s threats were reviewed. Here it was found that powerful competition is a worry for To yota Motor Company. After the review of Toyota Motor Company’s SWOT Analysis, the issue of the recalls was assessed. Analysis shows the issue within Toyota Motor Company did not appear overnight. However, secretive management styles let the company astray. A diagram was created by functional area to summarize how Toyota has responded to these recall problems. The functional areas reviewed include management, production design and safety, quality, and manufacturing. Last, the analysis of Toyota Motor Company’s recall and quality management issues are discussed from a point of solving the problem. Recommendations are discussed that will help Toyota Motor Company to turn their weaknesses into strengths. Method Discussion SWOT Analysis Internal Factors Strengths Weaknesses Product †¢ Dominant position in the marketplace †¢ Strong brand recognition †¢ Strong focus on Research & Development †¢ Broad production and distribution network †¢ Product recalls have the ability to negatively affect brand image †¢ Declining sales in crucial geographic areas External Factors Opportunities Threats Competition †¢ Growth of the global automotive industry †¢ Potential benefit from partnering with BMW †¢The outlook for the new global car market is strong †¢ Powerful competition †¢ Appreciation of the Japanese Yen †¢ Environmental regulations †¢Natural disasters Strengths. Toyota has a number of internal product strengths as noted in the SWOT Analysis table above. Toyota’s market share in 2011 was 16.5 percent,  its highest market share in 4 years. This strong market share allowed Toyota to hold a competitive advantage against their competition. In addition to holding a dominant position in the marketplace, Toyota possesses strong brand recognition through a number of brands. These brands include Toyota, Lexus, Prius, Corolla, Yaris, Camry, Sequoia, 4Runner, Scion tC, Highlander, Land Cruiser, and a number of other brand names. These brands are some of the most desired premium brands in the world according to the Company Profile report for Toyota Motor Company documented by MarketLine. Another strength of Toyota is their strong attention to research and development. According to the Company Profile report, Toyota’s focus on research and development is pointed towards the creation of new and improved products. Research and development operations are conducted at 14 facilities located around the world. This strength has allowed Toyota to increase the technology included in existing products. One of these products, a Pre-collision System (PCS) helps drivers avoid collisions. Overall, the strong focus on research and development has been a big strength for Toyota. Last, Toyota’s production and distribution network has been a big strength for the company. Toyota produces automobiles, related parts, and other components through more than 50 manufacturing companies throughout 27 countries and regions, not including Japan. As mentioned on the Toyota Motor Company website, major locations include Japan, the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Turkey, Thailand, China, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, South Africa, Australia, Argentina, and Brazil. As reported by Toyota Motor Company, during fiscal year 2013 the company had consolidated vehicle sales totals of 8.871 million units (TCM, 2013). As reported by Toyota Motor Company, this was an increase of 1.519 million units compared to the previous fiscal year. In addition to the widespread production of Toyota products, the company has a large distribution network. Toyota’s distribution network is one of the largest in Japan encompassing four sales channels (Toyota, Toyopet, Corolla, and Netz). In 2012 the distribution network of these channels was comprised of 283 dealers. In addition to this network, Toyota operates over 170 Lexus sales channels in Japan. As reported by Toyota Motor Company, in fiscal year 2013 these networks accounted for the following vehicle sales: Japan sales totaled 2.279 million units In North America vehicle sales totaled 2.469 million units In Europe vehicle sales totaled 799,085 units Asia came in at total vehicle sales of 1.684 million units Central and South America, Oceania and Africa came in at 1.640 million units As you can see, Toyota’s distribution network is widespread allowing for diversification and a wide reach of clientele, ultimately boosting revenues and sales. Weaknesses. A large focus of the case study focuses on the weakness of Toyota’s product recalls. As many are aware, Toyota has encountered a number of recalls in the recent past. It is a concern that these recalls could negatively affect Toyota’s brand imagine ultimately leading to decreased sales for the company. When searching for Toyota recalls it was easy to find a few recent recalls. The most recent is a recall of 700,000 Toyota Prius models which were recalled over electronic issues in the United States (csmonitor.com, 2014). Another very recent recall includes certain versions of the Lexus RX crossover. In this case, more than 261,000 vehicles are being recalled due to a brake issue (csmonitor.com, 2014). In addition to the many recalls, Toyota has been involved in a number of lawsuits. In December 2012, Toyota settled a suit by paying $17.4 million to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration to settle claims related to the June 2012 recall of potential accelerator pedal entrapment issues. This bad press will ultimately result in a negative effect on consumer’s confidence in Toyota’s brand. In addition, the settlement of suits ultimately decreases Toyota’s profits. As a result of this bad press Toyota saw a decline in 2012 sales in important geographic areas. Declining sales in fiscal year 2012 were seen across North America, Asia, and Europe. Opportunities. As reported by the article, Global automotive industry to experience modest growth in 2012, a number of opportunities exist in the global automotive industry (2012). The Japanese auto industry responded from natural disasters which had caused reduced inventories and production. It is forecasted that the industry will continue to grow increasing Toyota revenues. In June of 2012, BMW and Toyota signed a long-term partnership. The two companies are partnering on the developments that will help to increase market share and sales. This relationship is expected to increase technology between the two companies as  well as result in new product development. In addition to these opportunities, the new car market is experiencing moderate growth which will assist in increased sales and profits. Threats. Intense competition in the worldwide car market has become very competitive. This competition will likely increase in the upcoming years as competitors add more technology and increase developments. In addition to the intense competition, the appreciating Japanese Yen has become a big concern for Toyota. Last, environment regulations have the potential to increase production costs. Emissions regulations that are updated periodically could cause issues in new car production. Evolvement of Quality Management Issues At first glance, it seems that Toyota’s gas pedal issue appeared overnight. However, upon further research, evidence was found to prove the opposite. As reported in the article Secretive Culture Let Toyota Astray, evidence that Toyota cars could suddenly speed up had been piling up for years (2010). At the time of the recalls, Toyota had known about this gas pedal problem for more than a year. The problem was stated to be Toyota’s secretive corporate culture in Japan which ultimately conflicted with United States requirements that auto makers disclose safety threats. New initiatives brought to the table by Toyota have attempted to correct the previous secretive culture of Toyota. Total quality management initiatives have been put in place to assist in better customer service and safety and repair issues. According to Jacobs and Chase, total quality management can be defined as managing the entire organization so that it excels on all dimensions of products and services that are important to the customer (Chase and Jacobs, 2014, p. 296). The table following this discussion addresses the steps Toyota has taken in response to its recent quality recall problems. Functional Area Quality Management Steps Management †¢ Managing Director names to oversee any safety-related issues †¢ Top down management approach Product Design & Safety †¢ Troubleshooting teams known as Swift Market Analysis Response Teams work to  find any safety issues that need to be reported Quality †¢ TAQIC – Toyota Advanced Quality Information Center staffed by a group of employees who compile repair reports from dealerships worldwide †¢ 1000 engineers hired to spot-check quality Manufacturing †¢ No drastic changes to assembly lines Results/Discussion Problem Solution As discussed in the diagram above, there were many opportunities for Toyota after their encounter with the recall situation. Akio Toyoda, the head of the company, acted quickly by implementing a top down management approach instead of the more popular Japanese â€Å"bottom up† approach that slows down the decision making. In addition, Akio cut board of directors by fifty percent and cut out management layers. Akio also began meeting with his top five advisers on a weekly basis. In these meetings decisions were made quickly. Akio pushed his team to make â€Å"always better cars.† This change in the way the organization is managed helped Toyota to stay on top even through the recalls. Recommendations Many recommendations have been made to assist Toyota Motor Company in improving the recall situation they encountered in 2011. Some recommendations Toyota should follow include as recommended by the North American Quality Advisory Panel include the following: Give North American operations more independence in making recall decisions Strengthen quality control processes Extend development time of new products to include more safety tests Create a role of Chief Safety Technology Officer Create and launch a Safety Research Center focused on protecting the most important clientele (children, teens, and seniors) These ideas follow the concept of total quality management which focuses on two fundamental goals: Careful design of the product (in the case of Toyota Motor Company, the vehicle) Ensure that Toyota Motor Company systems can produce this design  in a consistent manner Quality at the source seems to be a great way for Toyota Motor Company to proceed. Quality at the source means that the person who is doing the work is taking the responsibility for making sure the work meets specifications. As previously discussed, safety control will be a huge initiative for Toyota Motor Company going forward. If implemented, these recommendations can do a lot to help Toyota Motor Company increase their organizational effectiveness. As previously discussed, many organizational steps were taken by Akio Toyoda after these recalls. It seems that Toyota could greatly benefit from organizational learning. As stated by Operations and Supply Chain Management, â€Å"it has been argued that organizational learning is critical to sustaining a competitive advantage† (Chase and Jacobs, 2014, p. 138). Organizational realignment was important to Toyota Motor Company after the 2010 and 2011 recalls. According to a Toyota news release in December of 2008 organizational changes include the establishment of the below: A Government and Public Affairs Group which was focused on quick response to inquiries from around the world while also unifying public affairs functions. An Accounting Group aimed at strengthening the business management and financial management system of Toyota Motor Company. A Europe and Africa Operations Group intended to assist with business planning in African and Central Asia. The group was also established to conduct business promotion events in both Europe and Africa. A Production Engineering Group aimed at increasing the strength of the quality control system for semiconductors for hybrid vehicles. The recommendations made are important to Toyota’s future. Reorganization and creation of new groups within the organization will help Toyota to overcome these recalls. References Ingram, A. (2014, Feb 12). Toyota recall: 1.9 million Prius vehicles recalled to fix software glitch. Retrieved from http://www.csmonitor.com/Business/In-Gear/2014/0212/Toyota-recall-1.9-million-Prius-vehicles-recalled-to-fix-software-glitch Jacobs, F. R., & Chase, R. (2014). Operations and supply chain management. (14 ed.). New York, NY:

Performance management & Performance appraisal Essay

Nowadays, every company has their human resources department that plays a large part of an organizations and a key to affect business succeeds or not. There are two core threads of human resources department are individual and organizational learning, individual and organizational performance. Human resource management should possess a good management systems and framework; ensure human ability is all used to achieve organization goals. Include strategic human resources management, equal employment opportunity, staffing, talent management and development, total rewards, risk management and worker protection, employee and labor relations. The best organizations understand that managing human resources effectively involves more than focusing only on current employees. It requires a long-term perspective that is responsive to the concerns of current employees; potential future employees and recent employees no longer work for. At the same time, the organizations strive to manage employees effectually, face to many challenges, for instance manning teams, the multicultural workforce, globalization, ethics and corporate social responsibility and metros. Human resources department responsible to provide effectual performance management and system to assist the company is going smooth. Performance management The purpose of performance management is one of the most important and positive developments, achievement of high performance by the organization, managing the business. This is the process of identifying, measuring, managing and developing the performance in an organization. There are showing how well employees perform and finally improve performance level. The further explain that create strategic, integrated process, develop a culture of constantly success to organizations by improving the performance of the people who work in them and by developing the capabilities of individual contributors and teams (Cardy & Leonard , 2011). The development of individuals with competence and commitment, working towards to shared meaningful objectives within an organization that supports the achievement. When the direction is correctly, performance management is a systematic analysis and measurement of workers performance. Also it is a critical and necessary component for individual and organizational effectiveness. When manage a group of workers or others, report the feedback to boss. It must be a process needed for improvement to occur. In performance management, it is getting the right workers into the production line or suitable staff into the system in a very important part of the overall process (Bergstedt, 2010). Performance appraisal Performance appraisal are part of a performance management system, it is ongoing process of evaluating and reviews of employee performance over time. Provide an opportunity for formal communication between management and the employees, concerning each employee what performing on organization. Create two-way interaction between people. It is a good opportunity and let employee express what their comment to bosses is. Open lines of communication throughout the year help to make effective working relationships. Allow management to make decisions about employees within the organization from this communication. Appraisals to make evaluative decisions concerning the workforce including pay raises, promotions, demotions, training, and development and so on. It cans measures skills and realization with reasonable accuracy and uniformity. The management can depend on this reliable information for making strategic planning, may enhance productivity for the firm as well. It provides a way to help identify areas for performance enhancement and to help promote professional growth. Each employee is entitled to a thoughtful and careful appraisal (Harzing, Pinnington, 2011, p.20-28). The success of the process depends on the supervisor’s willingness to complete a constructive and objective appraisal and on the employee’s willingness to respond to constructive suggestions and to work with the supervisor to reach future goals. Difference between performance management and performance appraisal Performance management focus is on performance management, identifies measures, manages, and develops the performance of people in the organization. It is designed to improve worker performance over time. Emphasis is on performance improvements of individuals, teams and the organization. It will continue process with periodical performance review discussions and then performance planning, analysis, review, development and improvements. Defining and setting performance standards are an integral part and designed by the human resources department but monitored under the each departments. Developmental needs are identified in the beginning of the year on the basis of the competency requirements for the coming year. There is review via mechanisms. However performance appraisal focus is on performance appraisal and ratings. It is just a part of the performance management process. Identifies measures, evaluates the employee’s performance, and then discusses that performance with the employee. Normally it is an annual exercise though periodic evaluations are made. The main functions are on ratings and evaluation. The most important component is rewards and recognition of good performance of staff. Designed and monitored by the human resource department. Developmental needs are identified at the end of the year on the basis of the appraisal of competency gaps. There are review mechanisms to ensure objectivity in ratings. (Fraser, 2007) Characteristics of an unsuccessful performance management system Normally, the good performance possesses ability, motivation and opportunity. It should make use of employee skills and have adequate incentives to urge them willingness to do the job. Provide work in an environment with support and way for expression. Unfortunately, driven by the some situational constraints including physical environment, working conditions, use of outcome of appraisal complexity of job, interdependence and lack of financial or human resources to make performance management system be an unsuccessful (Armstrong & Baron, 2005, p. 78-85). Causes of Failure of a performance management system have legislation affirmative action, lack of raters, less training, rating inflation or deflation, unclear purpose, without or ignore feedback, unfair reward system, appraisal instruments, performance Standards, rating accuracy, accountability of raters, management Commitment, no trust and participation and acceptance. ( Luecke & Hall,2006, p.93-98) Characteristics of a successful performance management system Successful performance management system can manage performance over time to ensure that remain productive, and hopefully become even more capable, as progress in their careers. Designing an effective performance management system should including mirror the corporate culture, clear definition and communications of what good performance ensure all senior management support and understand the level of performance. It may train managers in this performance management. To set a clear expectation for employee, acknowledging that people are doing a good job and recognizing them for a job well done. To set a clear manifest that performance in the company is differentiated and that differences in performance are recognized through the reward system. Differentiate performance fairly and effectively; through actions to show poor performance is being address, high performance will have a great rewards. Set an expectations or employee development, adjust the system if needed. Even compete performance management have a well strategic, developmental and administrative, also need line managers and senior management behave in a same way and support. That would be accomplished to achieve the organization goals. (Roberts Alan, 2012) An unsuccessful versus a successful performance management system When an unsuccessful compare a successful performance management system, if under unsuccessful performance management system. Without any clear objective, goals and fair rules in this organization. The whole company will face to employee leave, low morale and not belong to the company. Without employee support and the bad relationship between company. The business must be going worst. On the contrary, if company has a good performance management system with a clear fairly and effectively goals, the employee and management will all support and try the best to achieve goals. The business will be getting better for each part under a pleased environment. (Bhattacharyya, 2011, p.47-52) Some common errors and eliminated The common errors including distributional errors occur in three forms, severity or strictness, central tendency and leniency. There are based on a standard normal distribution. In severity or strictness error, the rater evaluates everyone or nearly everyone. Similarity error occurs when raters evaluate subordinates that judge or consider more similar as better employees. All have a tendency to feel more comfortable with people who feel are more similar. The similarity is based on demographic characteristics such as race. Allow this feeling of comfort with similar individuals to be reflected in the performance appraisal process. It can avoid similarity error by embracing diversity and objectively evaluating individual employees based on their actual performance. Contrast error is the rater compares and contrasts performance between two employees, rather than using absolute measures of performance to measure each employee. For example, the rater may contrast a good performer with an outstanding performer, and as a result of the significant contrast. This would be a contrast error. It can avoid contrast error by objectively evaluating individual employees based on actual performance. Management must use the ranking method correctly; each individual based on the items on the assessment form then rank the individuals based on their assessments. Halo and horn occurs when the evaluator has a generally positive or negative impression of an individual, and the evaluator then artificially extends that general impression to many individual categories of performance to create an overall evaluation of the individual that is either positive or negative In other words, if employees are judged by their supervisor to be generally good employees, and the supervisor then evaluates each of the areas of their performance as good, regardless of any behaviors or results to the contrary, the supervisor is guilty of halo error. It can avoid halo error by remembering that employees are often strong in some areas and weaker in others, and need to objectively evaluate individual employees based on actual performance for each and every item of assessment. Appraisal politics is refers to evaluators purposefully contorting a rating to achieve personal or organization goals. Factors other than performance affect the performance appraisal. These factors are internal in the appraisal system and the organization system. It is occur when raters are accountable to the employee and rated, it appear competing rating goals and direct linking current between performance appraisal and most desirable rewards. In order to lessen this matter, managers should keep in mind and pay attention a fair appraisal system. Central tendency error occurs when raters evaluate everyone under the control as average nobody is either really good or really bad. Proximity error states that similar marks may be given to items that are near each other on the performance appraisal form, regardless of differences in performance on those measures. Regency error occurs when raters use only the last few weeks or month of a rating period as evidence of their ratings of others. Attribution error. In simplified terms, attribution is a process where an individual assumes reasons or motivations such as attitudes, values, or beliefs for an observed behavior. Reducing rater errors is offer reeducating rating errors. Rater training undertaken to make managers aware of rating errors and helps develop strategies for minimizing those errors. This is consisting of the participants view vignettes designed to elicit rating errors, for example contrast. Rater Error Training called frame-of-reference training as well, emphasize the multidimensional nature of performance and raters with the actual content of various performance dimensions. Moreover, accuracy training seems can increasing accuracy and provided the training allows raters to practice making ratings and training feedback. Create a fair system should include train raters on the appropriate use of the process as discussed previously, build top management support for the appraisal system and actively discourage distortion, give raters some latitude to customer performance objectives and criteria for their rates, recognize employee accomplishments that are not self-promoted, make sure constraints for example a budget. Also make sure that appraisal processes are consistent across the company and foster a climate of openness to encourage employees to be honest the weakness. (Salaman, Storey & Billsberry, 2005, p.19-27) Conclusion In conclusion, this essay is proving that good performance management is one of the most important positions in the company. Seeing that it can help employee and management together to achievement the goals under high performance. At the same time, human resources department is a very chief role to develop perfect performance management system and need to avoid some common error. Thus, that’s why human resources are a big part in the organization and influence the whole company. Word count: 2013 Reference Armstrong Michael & Baron Angela (2005): Managing Performance: Performance Management in Action, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, CIPD House London, p. 78-85 Bergstedt Martin, (2010) [online] Available at: http://chenected.aiche.org/tools-techniques/the-performance-appraisal-system-part-2-of-effective-employee-performance-management [Accessed October 27, 2012]. Bhattacharyya Dipak Kumar, (2011): Performance Management Systems and Strategies, Dorling Kindersley India Pvt Ltd, licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia p.47-52 Cardy Robert L & Leonard Brian, (2011): Performance Management: Concepts, Skills, and Exercises Second Edition, M.E.Sharpe, Inc New York, p.134-156 Fraser Ross, (2007) [online] Available at: [Accessed July 5 2007]. Harzing Anne-Wil, Pinnington Ashly, (2011): International Human Resources Management Third Edition, SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Ltd Singapore p.20-28 Luecke Richard, Hall Brian J, (2006): Performance Management: Measure and Improve the Effectiveness of Your Employees, Harvard Business School Press p.93-98 Roberts Alan, (2012) [online] Available at: [Accessed June 25, 2012]. Salaman Graeme, Storey John, Billsberry Jon, (2005): Strategic Human Resource Management: Theory and Practice Second Edition, Published in association with The Open University p.19-27